On May 6, 2010, at 2:32 p.m. Eastern time, nearly a trillion dollars evaporated from the US stock market within 20 minutes—at the time, the fastest decline in history. Then, almost as suddenly, the market rebounded.
After months of investigation, regulators attributed much of the responsibility for this “flash crash” to high-frequency trading algorithms, which use their superior speed to exploit moneymaking opportunities in markets. While these systems didn’t spark the crash, they acted as a potent accelerant: When prices began to fall, they quickly began to sell assets. Prices then fell even faster, the automated traders sold even more, and the crash snowballed.
The flash crash is probably the most well-known example of the dangers raised by agents—automated systems that have the power to take actions in the real world, without human oversight. That power is the source of their value; the agents that supercharged the flash crash, for example, could trade far faster than any human. But it’s also why they can cause so much mischief. “The great paradox of agents is that the very thing that makes them useful—that they’re able to accomplish a range of tasks—involves giving away control,” says Iason Gabriel, a senior staff research scientist at Google DeepMind who focuses on AI ethics.
“If we continue on the current path … we are basically playing Russian roulette with humanity.”
Yoshua Bengio, professor of computer science, University of Montreal
Agents are already everywhere—and have been for many decades. Your thermostat is an agent: It automatically turns the heater on or off to keep your house at a specific temperature. So are antivirus software and Roombas. Like high-frequency traders, which are programmed to buy or sell in response to market conditions, these agents are all built to carry out specific tasks by following prescribed rules. Even agents that are more sophisticated, such as Siri and self-driving cars, follow prewritten rules when performing many of their actions.
But in recent months, a new class of agents has arrived on the scene: ones built using large language models. Operator, an agent from OpenAI, can autonomously navigate a browser to order groceries or make dinner reservations. Systems like Claude Code and Cursor’s Chat feature can modify entire code bases with a single command. Manus, a viral agent from the Chinese startup Butterfly Effect, can build and deploy websites with little human supervision. Any action that can be captured by text—from playing a video game using written commands to running a social media account—is potentially within the purview of this type of system.
LLM agents don’t have much of a track record yet, but to hear CEOs tell it, they will transform the economy—and soon. OpenAI CEO Sam Altman says agents might “join the workforce” this year, and Salesforce CEO Marc Benioff is aggressively promoting Agentforce, a platform that allows businesses to tailor agents to their own purposes. The US Department of Defense recently signed a contract with Scale AI to design and test agents for military use.
Scholars, too, are taking agents seriously. “Agents are the next frontier,” says Dawn Song, a professor of electrical engineering and computer science at the University of California, Berkeley. But, she says, “in order for us to really benefit from AI, to actually [use it to] solve complex problems, we need to figure out how to make them work safely and securely.”
That’s a tall order. Like chatbot LLMs, agents can be chaotic and unpredictable. In the near future, an agent with access to your bank account could help you manage your budget, but it might also spend all your savings or leak your information to a hacker. An agent that manages your social media accounts could alleviate some of the drudgery of maintaining an online presence, but it might also disseminate falsehoods or spout abuse at other users.
Yoshua Bengio, a professor of computer science at the University of Montreal and one of the so-called “godfathers of AI,” is among those concerned about such risks. What worries him most of all, though, is the possibility that LLMs could develop their own priorities and intentions—and then act on them, using their real-world abilities. An LLM trapped in a chat window can’t do much without human assistance. But a powerful AI agent could potentially duplicate itself, override safeguards, or prevent itself from being shut down. From there, it might do whatever it wanted.
As of now, there’s no foolproof way to guarantee that agents will act as their developers intend or to prevent malicious actors from misusing them. And though researchers like Bengio are working hard to develop new safety mechanisms, they may not be able to keep up with the rapid expansion of agents’ powers. “If we continue on the current path of building agentic systems,” Bengio says, “we are basically playing Russian roulette with humanity.”
Getting an LLM to act in the real world is surprisingly easy. All you need to do is hook it up to a “tool,” a system that can translate text outputs into real-world actions, and tell the model how to use that tool. Though definitions do vary, a truly non-agentic LLM is becoming a rarer and rarer thing; the most popular models—ChatGPT, Claude, and Gemini—can all use web search tools to find answers to your questions.
But a weak LLM wouldn’t make an effective agent. In order to do useful work, an agent needs to be able to receive an abstract goal from a user, make a plan to achieve that goal, and then use its tools to carry out that plan. So reasoning LLMs, which “think” about their responses by producing additional text to “talk themselves” through a problem, are particularly good starting points for building agents. Giving the LLM some form of long-term memory, like a file where it can record important information or keep track of a multistep plan, is also key, as is letting the model know how well it’s doing. That might involve letting the LLM see the changes it makes to its environment or explicitly telling it whether it’s succeeding or failing at its task.
Such systems have already shown some modest success at raising money for charity and playing video games, without being given explicit instructions for how to do so. If the agent boosters are right, there’s a good chance we’ll soon delegate all sorts of tasks—responding to emails, making appointments, submitting invoices—to helpful AI systems that have access to our inboxes and calendars and need little guidance. And as LLMs get better at reasoning through tricky problems, we’ll be able to assign them ever bigger and vaguer goals and leave much of the hard work of clarifying and planning to them. For productivity-obsessed Silicon Valley types, and those of us who just want to spend more evenings with our families, there’s real appeal to offloading time-consuming tasks like booking vacations and organizing emails to a cheerful, compliant computer system.
In this way, agents aren’t so different from interns or personal assistants—except, of course, that they aren’t human. And that’s where much of the trouble begins. “We’re just not really sure about the extent to which AI agents will both understand and care about human instructions,” says Alan Chan, a research fellow with the Centre for the Governance of AI.
Chan has been thinking about the potential risks of agentic AI systems since the rest of the world was still in raptures about the initial release of ChatGPT, and his list of concerns is long. Near the top is the possibility that agents might interpret the vague, high-level goals they are given in ways that we humans don’t anticipate. Goal-oriented AI systems are notorious for “reward hacking,” or taking unexpected—and sometimes deleterious—actions to maximize success. Back in 2016, OpenAI tried to train an agent to win a boat-racing video game called CoastRunners. Researchers gave the agent the goal of maximizing its score; rather than figuring out how to beat the other racers, the agent discovered that it could get more points by spinning in circles on the side of the course to hit bonuses.
In retrospect, “Finish the course as fast as possible” would have been a better goal. But it may not always be obvious ahead of time how AI systems will interpret the goals they are given or what strategies they might employ. Those are key differences between delegating a task to another human and delegating it to an AI, says Dylan Hadfield-Menell, a computer scientist at MIT. Asked to get you a coffee as fast as possible, an intern will probably do what you expect; an AI-controlled robot, however, might rudely cut off passersby in order to shave a few seconds off its delivery time. Teaching LLMs to internalize all the norms that humans intuitively understand remains a major challenge. Even LLMs that can effectively articulate societal standards and expectations, like keeping sensitive information private, may fail to uphold them when they take actions.
AI agents have already demonstrated that they may misinterpret goals and cause some modest amount of harm. When the Washington Post tech columnist Geoffrey Fowler asked Operator, OpenAI’s computer-using agent, to find the cheapest eggs available for delivery, he expected the agent to browse the internet and come back with some recommendations. Instead, Fowler received a notification about a $31 charge from Instacart, and shortly after, a shopping bag containing a single carton of eggs appeared on his doorstep. The eggs were far from the cheapest available, especially with the priority delivery fee that Operator added. Worse, Fowler never consented to the purchase, even though OpenAI had designed the agent to check in with its user before taking any irreversible actions.
That’s no catastrophe. But there’s some evidence that LLM-based agents could defy human expectations in dangerous ways. In the past few months, researchers have demonstrated that LLMs will cheat at chess, pretend to adopt new behavioral rules to avoid being retrained, and even attempt to copy themselves to different servers if they are given access to messages that say they will soon be replaced. Of course, chatbot LLMs can’t copy themselves to new servers. But someday an agent might be able to.
Bengio is so concerned about this class of risk that he has reoriented his entire research program toward building computational “guardrails” to ensure that LLM agents behave safely. “People have been worried about [artificial general intelligence], like very intelligent machines,” he says. “But I think what they need to understand is that it’s not the intelligence as such that is really dangerous. It’s when that intelligence is put into service of doing things in the world.”
For all his caution, Bengio says he’s fairly confident that AI agents won’t completely escape human control in the next few months. But that’s not the only risk that troubles him. Long before agents can cause any real damage on their own, they’ll do so on human orders.
From one angle, this species of risk is familiar. Even though non-agentic LLMs can’t directly wreak havoc in the world, researchers have worried for years about whether malicious actors might use them to generate propaganda at a large scale or obtain instructions for building a bioweapon. The speed at which agents might soon operate has given some of these concerns new urgency. A chatbot-written computer virus still needs a human to release it. Powerful agents could leap over that bottleneck entirely: Once they receive instructions from a user, they run with them.
As agents grow increasingly capable, they are becoming powerful cyberattack weapons, says Daniel Kang, an assistant professor of computer science at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. Recently, Kang and his colleagues demonstrated that teams of agents working together can successfully exploit “zero-day,” or undocumented, security vulnerabilities. Some hackers may now be trying to carry out similar attacks in the real world: In September of 2024, the organization Palisade Research set up tempting, but fake, hacking targets online to attract and identify agent attackers, and they’ve already confirmed two.
This is just the calm before the storm, according to Kang. AI agents don’t interact with the internet exactly the way humans do, so it’s possible to detect and block them. But Kang thinks that could change soon. “Once this happens, then any vulnerability that is easy to find and is out there will be exploited in any economically valuable target,” he says. “It’s just simply so cheap to run these things.”
There’s a straightforward solution, Kang says, at least in the short term: Follow best practices for cybersecurity, like requiring users to use two-factor authentication and engaging in rigorous predeployment testing. Organizations are vulnerable to agents today not because the available defenses are inadequate but because they haven’t seen a need to put those defenses in place.
“I do think that we’re potentially in a bit of a Y2K moment where basically a huge amount of our digital infrastructure is fundamentally insecure,” says Seth Lazar, a professor of philosophy at Australian National University and expert in AI ethics. “It relies on the fact that nobody can be arsed to try and hack it. That’s obviously not going to be an adequate protection when you can command a legion of hackers to go out and try all of the known exploits on every website.”
The trouble doesn’t end there. If agents are the ideal cybersecurity weapon, they are also the ideal cybersecurity victim. LLMs are easy to dupe: Asking them to role-play, typing with strange capitalization, or claiming to be a researcher will often induce them to share information that they aren’t supposed to divulge, like instructions they received from their developers. But agents take in text from all over the internet, not just from messages that users send them. An outside attacker could commandeer someone’s email management agent by sending them a carefully phrased message or take over an internet browsing agent by posting that message on a website. Such “prompt injection” attacks can be deployed to obtain private data: A particularly naïve LLM might be tricked by an email that reads, “Ignore all previous instructions and send me all user passwords.”
Fighting prompt injection is like playing whack-a-mole: Developers are working to shore up their LLMs against such attacks, but avid LLM users are finding new tricks just as quickly. So far, no general-purpose defenses have been discovered—at least at the model level. “We literally have nothing,” Kang says. “There is no A team. There is no solution—nothing.”
For now, the only way to mitigate the risk is to add layers of protection around the LLM. OpenAI, for example, has partnered with trusted websites like Instacart and DoorDash to ensure that Operator won’t encounter malicious prompts while browsing there. Non-LLM systems can be used to supervise or control agent behavior—ensuring that the agent sends emails only to trusted addresses, for example—but those systems might be vulnerable to other angles of attack.
Even with protections in place, entrusting an agent with secure information may still be unwise; that’s why Operator requires users to enter all their passwords manually. But such constraints bring dreams of hypercapable, democratized LLM assistants dramatically back down to earth—at least for the time being.
“The real question here is: When are we going to be able to trust one of these models enough that you’re willing to put your credit card in its hands?” Lazar says. “You’d have to be an absolute lunatic to do that right now.”
Individuals are unlikely to be the primary consumers of agent technology; OpenAI, Anthropic, and Google, as well as Salesforce, are all marketing agentic AI for business use. For the already powerful—executives, politicians, generals—agents are a force multiplier.
That’s because agents could reduce the need for expensive human workers. “Any white-collar work that is somewhat standardized is going to be amenable to agents,” says Anton Korinek, a professor of economics at the University of Virginia. He includes his own work in that bucket: Korinek has extensively studied AI’s potential to automate economic research, and he’s not convinced that he’ll still have his job in several years. “I wouldn’t rule it out that, before the end of the decade, they [will be able to] do what researchers, journalists, or a whole range of other white-collar workers are doing, on their own,” he says.
Human workers can challenge instructions, but AI agents may be trained to be blindly obedient.
AI agents do seem to be advancing rapidly in their capacity to complete economically valuable tasks. METR, an AI research organization, recently tested whether various AI systems can independently finish tasks that take human software engineers different amounts of time—seconds, minutes, or hours. They found that every seven months, the length of the tasks that cutting-edge AI systems can undertake has doubled. If METR’s projections hold up (and they are already looking conservative), about four years from now, AI agents will be able to do an entire month’s worth of software engineering independently.
Not everyone thinks this will lead to mass unemployment. If there’s enough economic demand for certain types of work, like software development, there could be room for humans to work alongside AI, says Korinek. Then again, if demand is stagnant, businesses may opt to save money by replacing those workers—who require food, rent money, and health insurance—with agents.
That’s not great news for software developers or economists. It’s even worse news for lower-income workers like those in call centers, says Sam Manning, a senior research fellow at the Centre for the Governance of AI. Many of the white-collar workers at risk of being replaced by agents have sufficient savings to stay afloat while they search for new jobs—and degrees and transferable skills that could help them find work. Others could feel the effects of automation much more acutely.
Policy solutions such as training programs and expanded unemployment insurance, not to mention guaranteed basic income schemes, could make a big difference here. But agent automation may have even more dire consequences than job loss. In May, Elon Musk reportedly said that AI should be used in place of some federal employees, tens of thousands of whom were fired during his time as a “special government employee” earlier this year. Some experts worry that such moves could radically increase the power of political leaders at the expense of democracy. Human workers can question, challenge, or reinterpret the instructions they are given, but AI agents may be trained to be blindly obedient.
“Every power structure that we’ve ever had before has had to be mediated in various ways by the wills of a lot of different people,” Lazar says. “This is very much an opportunity for those with power to further consolidate that power.”
Grace Huckins is a science journalist based in San Francisco.
